I AM BIHAR.(nice paragraph to be proud of being a Bihari...VT)

I AM BIHAR. I am the history of India. I gave India its first President. I gave the world its first Republic. I nourished Buddha to enlightenment. I gave world its best ancient University. Mahavir came out of my womb to found Jainism. My son Valmiki wrote Ramayan, the greatest Epic. I gave birth to Aryabhatt, the great ancient mathematician. My son Vatsayana wrote Kamasutra, the treatise of love. I gave Ashoka Chakra that adorns India's national flag. Rishi Shushrut, the father of surgery, lived on my soil. My son, Guru Gobind was the tenth guru of sikh. My son Chanakya was the father of Economics and Political Science. My son Ashoka was the greatest ruler of India. My son, Rashtrakavi Ramdhari Singh Dinkar is the national poet of India. I gave the world its first University. I am the land of festivals. I am brotherhood. I am the past, I am present, I am the future. I AM BIHAR. Jai hind.!

बाबा नागार्जुन की कविता तीनो बन्दर बापू के

बाबा नागार्जुन की कविता

तीनो बन्दर बापू के


बापू के भी ताऊ निकले तीनों बन्दर बापू के !
सरल सूत्र उलझाऊ निकले तीनों बन्दर बापू के !
सचमुच जीवनदानी निकले तीनों बन्दर बापू के !
ग्यानी निकले, ध्यानी निकले तीनों बन्दर बापू के !
जल-थल-गगन-बिहारी निकले तीनों बन्दर बापू के !
लीला के गिरधारी निकले तीनों बन्दर बापू के !

"The only thing that interferes with my learning is my education." - Albert Einstein

JO TRANSPARENT HAI WAH SAMNE HAI..USSKI BURAIYAN AUR AACHAIYAN JO DEEKHTI HEIN,JO HOTI HEIN,AUR JO CHIIPI HUI HEIN....VT

JO TRANSPARENT HAI WAH SAMNE HAI..USSKI BURAIYAN AUR AACHAIYAN JO DEEKHTI HEIN,JO HOTI HEIN,AUR JO CHIIPI HUI HEIN,JO TRANSPARENT NAHIN HEIN UNKE LIYE PURRA MAUKA HAI KI VEH JABB BHI SAMNE AAYEIN,PURRI TAYYARI KE SAATH,AURON KI KAMION KO PARAKH KER,USSSE SEEKH KER SWAYAM KO BATON SE AADHIK SE ADHIK SARVASHRESHT SABEET KERNE KE LIYEE!!AGAR UNN SHABDON KO KARYANVAYAN BHI KAREIN TO AATMSHLAGHA KI ZARROORAT NAHIN HOGI!!YEH SABB PER LAGOO HOTA HAI!!CHEDRANVESHI HONA BHUTT AACHI BAAT NAHIN HAI!!....VT

TRY TO CONTROLL EMOTIONS-FEW HAS NEGATIVE SHADES LIKE BEING-WHIMSICAL,CYNICAL,SARCASTIC,ANGERY,CRITICISM,SATIRE OTHER THEN HUMOUR,PRAISE,LOVE,HAPPIESS

“Little by little, through patience and repeated efforts, you will achieve the stability of the mind (Sthitpragya).” - Gita

“Little by little, through patience and repeated efforts, you will achieve the stability of the mind (Sthitpragya).” - Gita

“If there is one thing I learned from this experience it’s that U have to believe in people, n their ability 2 grow n 2 change,U can never giveup hope

“If there is one thing I learned from this experience it’s that you have to believe in people, and their ability to grow and to change. . . . You can never give up hope.”

भारत के पहले गर्ल्स स्कूल की पहली (teacher and )प्रिंसिपल और पहले किसान स्कूल की संस्थापक को नमन -Wife of Social Reformer Mahatma Phule-

Savitribai Jotirao Phule

Wife of Social Reformer Mahatma Phule


Savitribai Phule

First Indian Lady Teacher Savitribai Jotiba Phule


Year
Birth of SavitriBai.(Naigaon,Tha. Khandala Dist. Satara) Father's name- Khandoji

Nevse, Mother's name- Laxmi. 3rd Jan.1831
Marriage with Jotirao Phule. 1840
Education started. 1841

Passed third and fourth year examination from Normal school. 1846-47
Started school with Sagunabai in Maharwada. 1847

Country's first school for girls was started at Bhide's wada in Pune and Savitribai was nominated as the first head mistress of the school. 1 Jan.1848

School for adults was started at UsmanSheikh's wada in Pune. Left home with Jotirao for educating Shudra and ati Shudra's . 1849

First public Til-Gul programme was arranged by Mahila Seva Mandal. 14 Jan.1852

Phule family was honoured by British government for their works in the field of education and Savtribai was declared as the best teacher. 16 Nov.1852

Infanticide prohibition home was started. 28 Jan.1853

Prize giving ceremony was arranged under the chairmanship of Major Candy. 12 Feb.1853

"Kavya Phule"-the first collection of poems was published. 1854

A night school for agriculturist and labourers was started. 1855

'Lecture's of Jyotiba' was published. 25 Dec.1856

Orphanage was started. 1863

Opened the well to untouchables. 1868

Adopted son of Kashibai, a Brahmin Widow's Child. 1874

Done important work in famine and started 52 free food hostels in Maharashatra. 1876 to 1877

Adopted son, Dr.Yashwant was married to the daughter of Sasane. 4

Feb.1889

Death of her husband Jotirao Phule . 28 Nov. 1890

Chairperson of Satya Shodhak Samaj Conference at Saswad. 1893

Again famine in Maharashtra. Forced government to start relief work. 1896

Plague epidemic in Pune.Had done social work during this hour. 1897

Died while serving the Plague paitents during plague epidemic. 10 March 1897

Centenary year in Maharashtra and National honour. 10 March 1997 to 98

Government of India honoured her by publishing a postage stamp. 10

March 1998

DR JAWAHAR LAL NEHRU ON DR.SARVEPALLI RADHAKRISHNAN

"HE HAS SERVED OUR COUNTRY IN MANY CAPACITIES.BUT ABOVE ALL,HE IS A GREAT TEACHER FROM WHOM ALL OF US HAVE LEARNT MUCH AND WILL CONTINUE TO LEARN.IT IS INDIA'S PECULIAR PRIVILEGE TO HAVE A GREAT PHILOSOPHER,A GREAT EDUCATIONIST AND A GREAT HUMANIST AS HER PRESIDENT...."

PT.JAWAHERLAL NEHRU ON DR SARVEPALLI RADHAKRISHNAN

MY HEARY NAMAN TO ALL GURU'S INCLUDING MINE--MY FAMILY MEMBERS WHO TAUGHT ME SOMETHING OR OTHER,OR MY TEACHERS OF SCHOOL,COLLEGE,WORK PLACES...AND THOSE ALL WHO TEACHES SOMETHING OR OTHER TO US,DIRECTLY/INDIRECTLY/DELIBRETLY OR SUBCONCIOUSLY INCLUDING SELF INNERVOICE AS I FEEL I AM A SELF TAUGHT PERSON...INCLUDING NATURE MOTHER...AND EVERYTHING WHICH ARE UNIVERSAL.VIBHA TAILANG

Dr B.D.Ambedkar-After writing constitution he wrote....!!

26 JANUARY 1950 KO HUM AANTERVIRODH SE BHARE JEEVAN MEIN PRAVESH KAR RAHE HEIN.RAJNEETI MEIN HUMEIN SAMANTA HOGI,LEKIN SAMAJIK AUR AARTHIK JEEVAN MEIN HUMEIN ASAAMANTA MELEGII.RAJNEETI MEIN HUM EK VYAKTI,EK VOTE EVAM EK MULYA KE SIDHAANTH KO SWEEKAR KARENGE.SAMAJIK EVAM AARTHIK JEEVAN MEIN HUM AAPNE SAMAJIK THATHA AARTHIK JEEVAN MEIN SAMANTA KO AASWEEKAR KARENGE? YADI HUM EK LAMBE SAMAY TAK ISSE ASWIKAR KARENGE,TOOO HUM AAAPNE RAJNAITIK LOKTANTRA KO JOKHIM MEIN DAAL KER HI EISA KARTE RAHEINGE.HUMEIN AAVASHYA HII JALDI S JALDI ISS AANTERVIRODH KO DUUR KARNA CHAHIYE,AANYATHA JO ISS AASAMANTA SE PEEDIIT HEIN,VE ISS RAJNAITIK LOKTANTRA KE DHANCHE KO DHVAST KER DENGE,JISSE ISS SAMVIDHAN SABHA NE ITTNII MEHNAT SE TAYYAR KIYYA HAI.

DR.B.D.AMBEDKAR

TELEPATHY(DO WE HAVE A NEW FORM OF IT WHICH STILL NEEDED TO BE DIAGONOSED,RESEARCHED AND NAMED???..VT)

Telepathy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Telepathy (disambiguation).
This article is about the paranormal phenomenon. For the magical act, see mentalism.
Telepathy Terminology

An experiment in sensory deprivation aiming to demonstrate TP
Coined by Fredric W. H. Myers (1882) [1]
Definition The transference of thoughts or feelings between two or more subjects through Psi
Signature One subject said to gain information from another that was shielded from their traditional senses by distance, time, or physical barriers.
See also Extra-sensory perception,
Anomalous cognition,
Ganzfeld experiment

Telepathy (from the Greek τηλε, tele meaning "distant" and πάθη, pathe meaning "affliction, experience"),[2] is the induction of mental states from one mind to another. The term was coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Fredric W. H. Myers, a founder of the Society for Psychical Research,[1] and has remained more popular than the more-correct expression thought-transference.[1][3] Many studies seeking to detect, understand, and utilize telepathy have been done within this field. The scientific community does not regard telepathy as a real phenomenon as actual telepathy has never been demonstrated to a greater degree than pure chance under controlled experimental conditions.

Telepathy is a common theme in modern fiction and science fiction, with many superheroes and supervillains having telepathic abilities. In more recent times, neuroimaging has allowed researchers to actually perform early forms of mind reading.


* 1 Origins of the concept
* 2 In parapsychology
o 2.1 Types
* 3 Skepticism and controversy
* 4 In popular culture
* 5 Technologically enabled telepathy
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 External links

Origins of the concept

According to Roger Luckhurst,[4] the origin of the concept of telepathy (not telepathy itself) in the Western civilization can be tracked to the late 19th century. In his view, science did not frequently concern itself with "the mind" prior to this. As the physical sciences made significant advances, scientific concepts were applied to mental phenomena (e.g., animal magnetism), with the hope that this would help understand paranormal phenomena. The modern concept of telepathy emerged in this historical context.

The notion of telepathy is not dissimilar to two psychological concepts: delusions of thought insertion/removal and psychological symbiosis. This similarity might explain how some people have come up with the idea of telepathy. Thought insertion/removal is a symptom of psychosis, particularly of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Psychiatric patients who experience this symptom falsely believe that some of their thoughts are not their own and that others (e.g., other people, aliens, or conspiring intelligence agencies) are putting thoughts into their minds (thought insertion). Some patients feel as if thoughts are being taken out of their minds or deleted (thought removal). Along with other symptoms of psychosis, delusions of thought insertion may be reduced by antipsychotic medication.

Psychological symbiosis, on the other hand, is a less well established concept. It is an idea found in the writings of early psychoanalysts, such as Melanie Klein. It entails the belief that in the early psychological experience of the child (during earliest infancy), the child is unable to tell the difference between his or her own mind, on one hand, and his or her experience of the mother/parent, on the other hand. This state of mind is called psychological symbiosis; with development, it ends, but, purportedly, aspects of it can still be detected in the psychological functioning of the adult. Putatively, the experience of either thought insertion/removal or unconscious memories of psychological symbiosis may have led to the invention of "telepathy" as a notion and the belief that telepathy exists. Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists believe and empirical findings support the idea that people with schizotypal personality disorder are particularly likely to believe in telepathy.[5]
In parapsychology


Within the field of parapsychology, telepathy is considered to be a form of extra-sensory perception (ESP) or anomalous cognition in which information is transferred through Psi. It is often categorized similarly to precognition and clairvoyance.[6] Various experiments have been used to test for telepathic abilities. Among the most well known are the use of Zener cards and the Ganzfeld experiment.
Zener cards

Zener cards are cards marked with five distinctive symbols. When using them, one individual is designated the "sender" and another the "receiver". The sender must select a random card and visualize the symbol on it, while the receiver must attempt to determine that symbol using Psi. Statistically, the receiver has a 20% chance of randomly guessing the correct symbol, so in order to demonstrate telepathy, they must repeatedly score a success rate that is significantly higher than 20%.[7] If not conducted properly, this method can be vulnerable to sensory leakage and card counting.[7]

When using the Ganzfeld experiment to test for telepathy, one individual is designated the receiver and is placed inside a controlled environment where they are deprived of sensory input, and another is designated the sender and is placed in a separate location. The receiver is then required to receive information from the sender. The exact nature of the information may vary between experiments.[8]
Types

Parapsychology describes several different forms of telepathy, including latent telepathy and precognitive telepathy.[3]

Latent Telepathy, formerly known as "deferred telepathy",[9] is described as being the transfer of information, through Psi, with an observable time-lag between transmission and receipt.[3]

Retrocognitive, Precognitive, and Intuitive Telepathy is described as being the transfer of information, through Psi, about the past, future or present state of an individual's mind to another individual.[3]

Emotive Telepathy, also known as remote influence [10] or emotional transfer, is the process of transferring kinesthetic sensations through altered states.

Superconscious Telepathy, involves tapping into the superconscious [11] to access the collective wisdom of the human species for knowledge.
[edit] Skepticism and controversy

Although not a recognized scientific discipline, people who study certain types of paranormal phenomena such as telepathy refer to the field as parapsychology. Parapsychologists claim that some instances of telepathy are real.[12][13] Skeptics say that instances of apparent telepathy are explained as the result of fraud, self-delusion and/or self-deception and that telepathy does not exist as a paranormal power.[14]

Parapsychologists and skeptics agree that many of the instances of more popular psychic phenomena, such as mediumism, can be attributed to non-paranormal techniques such as cold reading.[15][16][17] Magicians such as Ian Rowland and Derren Brown have demonstrated techniques and results similar to those of popular psychics, without paranormal means. They have identified, described, and developed psychological techniques of cold reading and hot reading.

A technique which shows statistically significant evidence of telepathy on every occasion has yet to be discovered. This lack of reliable reproducibility has led skeptics to argue that there is no credible scientific evidence for the existence of telepathy at all.[18] Skeptics also point to historical cases in which flaws in experimental design and occasional cases of fraud were uncovered.[18] Parapsychologists such as Dean Radin, president of the Parapsychological Association, argue that the statistical significance and consistency of results shown by a meta-analysis of numerous studies provides evidence for telepathy that is almost impossible to account for using any other means.[8]
In popular culture

Telepathy is commonly used in fiction, with a number of superheroes and supervillains, as well as figures in many science fiction novels, etc., use telepathy. Notable fictional telepaths include the Jedi in Star Wars. The mechanics of telepathy in fiction vary widely. Some fictional telepaths are limited to receiving only thoughts that are deliberately sent by other telepaths, or even to receiving thoughts from a specific other person. For example, in Robert A. Heinlein's 1956 novel Time for the Stars, certain pairs of twins are able to send telepathic messages to each other. In A. E. van Vogt's science fiction novel Slan, the mutant hero Jommy Cross can read the minds of ordinary humans. Some telepaths can read the thoughts only of those they touch, such as Vulcans in the Star Trek media franchise and Aro, a vampire in Stephenie Meyer's book New Moon. Star Trek science consultant and writer André Bormanis, has revealed that telepathy within the Star Trek universe works via the "psionic field." According to Bormanis, a psionic field is the "medium" through which unspoken thoughts and feelings are communicated through space.[19] Some humanoids can tap into this field through a kind of sense organ located in the brain; in the same manner that human eyes can sense portions of the electromagnetic field, telepaths can sense portions of the psionic field. In the book "Eragon", Eragon can communicate through his mind with almost anyone, including his dragon Saphira, but it is possible to block people from your mind with a barrier.In the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling, telepathy is a magical skill known as Legilimency. In the John Wyndham novel The Chrysalids, the main character and narrator David Strorm is one of a group of nine telepaths. In Anthony Horowitz's Power of Five series twins Jamie and Scott Tyler were born with telepathic powers that enable them to read people's minds and, ultimately, control them. They always know each other's thoughts, which earns them money doing tricks at a circus in Reno, Nevada, USA.

Some writers view telepathy as the evolutionary destiny of humanity. In Tony Vigorito's novel, Just a Couple of Days, telepathy emerges across the entire human species as a result of the Pied Piper Virus, which inadvertently eliminates humanity's symbolic capacity. In this instance, telepathy is seen as a latent ability that emerges only when the distractions of language are bypassed.

Some fictional telepaths possess mind control abilities, which can include "pushing" thoughts, feelings, or hallucinatory visions into the mind of another person, causing pain, paralysis, or unconsciousness, altering or erasing memories, or completely taking over another person's mind and body (similar to spiritual possession). Examples of this type of telepath include Professor Xavier, Psylocke, Jean Grey, Emma Frost, and numerous other characters in the Marvel Universe, along with Matt Parkman from the television series Heroes.

The radio crimefighter The Shadow had "the power to cloud men's minds," which he used to mask his presence from others.

The film Scanners concerns around people born with this kind of telepathy as well as those with telekinetic abilities.

The Urdu novel "Devta" is based on the character of Farhad Ali Taimur, a telepath involved in the fight of good and evil.

Technological enabled mental connections (occasionally seen as a form of 'telepathy' as in the following section, but not usually described using this word) are also present in science fiction, often involving the usage of neural implants of some description. For example, Robert Silverberg's 1971 story Tower of Glass features a technology called a "shunt room" where participants wearing "shunt helmets" are able to probe one another's thoughts, feelings and memories. Another example is the Conjoiners in the Revelation Space series by Alastair Reynolds. Conjoiners rely on their technological telepathy (referred to by them as "Transenlightenment") to the extent that they no longer actually speak. Certain Conjoiners are able to read, attack and control the minds of other Conjoiners and machines (though not standard humans) using digital attacks, often having similar effects to other telepaths in fiction. More generally, the concept of technological mental connections quite often features in science fiction stories featuring group minds, such as the Borg in Star Trek.


Technologically enabled telepathy
Thought identification.
Converging Technologies, a 2002 report exploring the potential for synergy among nano-, bio-, informational and cognitive technologies (NBIC) for enhancing human performance.


Recent BCI toys like those developed by NeuroSky have brought real life telepathy to the general public. The MindFlex made by Matell in collaboration with NeuroSky was even ranked in Time Magazines top 100 toys of all time [20] [21]. In this game the player floats a ball by concentrating on it; an electroencephalogram is used to judge the persons level of concentration through direct measurement of the electrical activity in their brain, this headset then communicates with a platform controlling the speed of a fan and thus the ball. [22][23]

In 2011 a Guinness Book of World Records category was created for BCI based telepathy. The NeuroSky MindWave was awarded it for the, “Heaviest machine moved using a brain control interface”.[24]

Futurists think that brain-computer interfaces may make telepathy possible. There has already been progress in connecting brains with machines, and a man-machine-man bridge is considered very possible. And if man-machine-man bridges can be made, then such a link can be achieved over great distances using Internet.

Technologically enabled telepathy is also called "techlepathy," "synthetic telepathy," or "psychotronics."

Some people, occasionally referred to by themselves or others as "transhumanists", believe that technologically enabled telepathy is a technology that humans should pursue in order to improve themselves.

Kevin Warwick of the University of Reading, England is one of the leading proponents of this view and has based all of his recent cybernetics research around developing technology for directly connecting human nervous systems together with computers and with each other. He believes techno-enabled telepathy will in the future become the primary form of human communication.[25][26]
[edit] See also
[show]Part of a series of articles on the paranormal
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* Abhijna, the Buddhist "higher knowledges", the third of which is "Mind-penetrating knowledge".
* Alice Bailey
* Body language or kinesics, another form of paralinguistics.
* Extended mind, the concept that things frequently used by the mind become part of it.
* Lady Wonder, a horse that appeared to answer questions.
* List of parapsychology topics
* Magnetoencephalography, measuring the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain.
* Mentalist, claims to manipulate and change spiritual reality.
* Morphic resonance
* Neural oscillation, a concept measured as brain waves.
* Precognition, a form of extra-sensory perception involving seeing future events.
* Quantum pseudo-telepathy, apparent telepathy as a result of quantum entanglement.
* Velostat, a purported insulator.
* Telepathy Simulating Toys and Games

the form of religious activity that manifests itself in revivals. the tendency to revive what belongs to the past.is Revivalism

the form of religious activity that manifests itself in revivals.
the tendency to revive what belongs to the past
.a religious movement encouraging people to be interested in Christianity

Methodist revivalism

the process of encouraging new interest in something such as an old tradition or a type of music

Specific theories and beliefs

atheism

noun

the belief or theory that God does not exist

authoritarianism

noun

the belief that people with power should control what other people can do, or a situation in which this happens

behaviorism

the American spelling of behaviourism

behaviourism

noun

the belief that the scientific study of people’s minds should be based only on their behaviour

conspiracy theory

noun

the idea that a group of people secretly worked together to cause a particular event

cynicism

noun

the belief that people care only about themselves and are not sincere or honest

cynicism

noun

the belief that things will not be successful or useful

determinism

noun

the belief that everything is caused by another event or action and so you are not free to choose what you do

dualism

noun

the belief that something has two aspects or parts

elitism

noun

the belief that a small group of people who have a lot of advantages should keep the most power and influence

empiricism

noun

the belief that ideas should be based on real experience or scientific experiments rather than on theory

fatalism

noun

the belief that you cannot prevent things from happening, especially bad things

functionalism

noun

the belief that things should be designed and built to be useful and practical rather than attractive

individualism

noun

the belief that the freedom of individual people is more important than the needs of society or the government

kaizen

noun

a Japanese set of ideas about business that encourages people to continue to improve their personal and professional life

materialism

noun

the belief that money and possessions are the most important aspects of human existence

materialism

noun

the philosophical belief that only the physical world that people experience directly exists

nihilism

noun

the belief that nothing in life has any importance or value

Parkinson’s law

noun

the theory that work always takes as long as the time that you have available to do it

positivism

noun

a way of thinking that is based only on scientific facts and not on other types of knowledge

relativism

noun

the belief that things like truth and morals change depending on a particular culture or situation. Someone who believes this is called a relativist

revisionism

noun

the development of ideas that are different from the official or traditional ideas of a particular group. This word often shows that you think the new ideas are wrong.

revivalism

noun

the process of encouraging new interest in something such as an old tradition or a type of music

Sod’s Law

noun

the theory that if something can go wrong it will go wrong

solipsism

noun

the theory that the only thing you can be certain about is your own existence and your own thoughts and ideas

speciesism

noun

the idea that animals are less important than humans and do not have as many natural rights

structuralism

noun

a method of studying something such as art, language, or society by examining the structures on which they are based

trickle-down theory

noun

an economic theory according to which poor people benefit when richer people become even richer

asceticism

noun

Confucianism

noun

egalitarianism

noun

existentialism

noun

purism

noun

rationalism

noun

Vedānta) was originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a synonym for that part of the Veda texts known asUpanishads,"the purpose or goal of vedas

(English pronunciation: /vɪˈdɑːntə/, Hindustani pronunciation: [ʋeːd̪aːn̪t̪], Devanagari: वेदान्त, Vedānta) was originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a synonym for that part of the Veda texts known also as the Upanishads. The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the Vedic hymns." It is also speculated that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas."^[1] By the 8th century CE, the word also came to be used to describe a group of philosophical traditions concerned with the self-realisation by which one understands the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman). Vedanta can also be used as a noun to describe one who has mastered all four of the original Vedas. Vedānta is also called Uttarā Mīmāṃsā, or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry'. Pūrva Mimamsa, usually simply called Mimamsa, deals with explanations of the fire-sacrifices of the Vedic mantras (in the Samhita portion of the Vedas) and Brahmanas, while Vedanta explicates the esoteric teachings of the Āraṇyakas (the "forest scriptures"), and the Upanishads, composed from ca. the 9th century BCE until modern times.

Vedanta is not restricted or confined to one book and there is no sole source for Vedāntic philosophy.^[2]

History

In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vedānta' simply referred to the Upanishads, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedānta considers scriptural evidence, or shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid).

The systematization of Vedāntic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by Badarāyana in the Vedānta Sutra which was composed around 200 BCE.^[3] The Vedānta-sūtra are known by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma-sūtra, (2) Śārīraka, (3) Vyāsa-sūtra, (4) Bādarāyaṇa-sūtra, (5) Uttara-mīmāṁsā and (6) Vedānta-darśana.^[4] The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries. Consistent throughout Vedanta, however, is the exhortation that ritual be eschewed in favor of the individual's quest for truth through meditation governed by a loving morality, secure in the knowledge that infinite bliss awaits the seeker. Nearly all existing sects of Hinduism are directly or indirectly influenced by the thought systems developed by Vedantic thinkers. Hinduism to a great extent owes its survival to the formation of the coherent and logically advanced systems of Vedanta.

Source texts

All forms of Vedānta are drawn primarily from the Upanishads, a set of philosophical and instructive Vedic scriptures. "The Upanishads are commentaries on the Vedas, their putative end and essence^{[citation needed]}, and thus known as Vedānta or "End of the Veda". They are considered the fundamental essence of all the Vedas and although they form the backbone of Vedanta, portions of Vedantic thought are also derived from some of the earlier āranyakas.

The primary philosophy captured in the Upanishads, that of one absolute reality termed as Brahman is the main principle of Vedanta. The sage Vyāsa was one of the major proponents of this philosophy and author of the Brahma Sūtras based on the Upanishads. The concept of Brahman – the eternal, self existent, immanent and transcendent Supreme and Ultimate Reality which is the divine ground of all Being - is central to most schools of Vedānta. The concept of God or Ishvara is also there, and the Vedantic sub-schools differ mainly in how they identify God with Brahman.

The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, several scholars have interpreted the writings in Upanishads and other scriptures like Brahma Sutras according to their own understanding and the need of their time. There are a total of six important interpretations of these source texts, out of which, three (Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita) are prominent, both in India and abroad. These Vedantic schools of thought were founded by Shri Adi Shankara, Shri Ramanuja and Shri Madhvacharya, respectively. It should be noted, however, that the Indian pre-Shankara Buddhist writer, Bhavya, in the Madhyamakahrdaya Kārika describes the Vedānta philosophy as "Bhedabheda". Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in India.

While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, the Bhagavad Gita has played a strong role in Vedantic thought, with its representative syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic thought. Indeed, it is itself called an "upanishad" and thus, all major Vedantic teachers (like Shankara, Rāmānuja, and Mādhvāchārya) have taken it upon themselves to compose often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the Gita. In such a manner, Vedāntists both old and new have implicitly attested to the Gitā's importance to the development of Vedantic thought and practice.^{[citation needed]}

Sub-schools of Vedanta

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Advaita Vedānta

Advaita Vedānta was propounded by Adi Shankara and his grand-guru Gaudapada, who described Ajativada. According to this school of Vedānta, Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole reality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatsoever. An illusory power of Brahman called Māyā causes the world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true knowledge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence of Māyā, Brahman appears as God (Ishvara), separate from the world and from the individual. In reality, there is no difference between the individual soul jīvātman (see Atman) and Brahman. Liberation lies in knowing the reality of this non-difference (i.e. a-dvaita, "non-duality"). Thus, the path to liberation is finally only through knowledge (jñāna).^[5]

[edit] Vishishtadvaita

Vishishtadvaita was propounded by Rāmānuja and says that the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman is asserted to have attributes, including the individual conscious souls and matter. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devotion to God visualized as Vishnu to be the path to liberation. Māyā is seen as the creative power of God.^[5]

Dvaita

Dvaita was propounded by Madhwāchārya. It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with Brahman completely, and in turn with Vishnu or his various incarnations like Krishna, Narasimha, Srinivāsa etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards Brahman, all individual souls (jīvātmans) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates Bhakti as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively. Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.^[5]

Dvaitādvaita

Dvaitādvaita was propounded by Nimbārka, based upon an earlier school called Bhedābheda, which was taught by Bhāskara. According to this school, the jīvātman is at once the same as yet different from Brahman. The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. In this school, God is visualized as Krishna.^[5]

Shuddhādvaita

Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabha. This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'). The world is said to be the sport (Leela) of Krishna, who is Sat-Chit-Ananda.^[5]

Story of Vedanta

There is a story in Mundaka Upanishad that runs like this: Once in a tree there were two birds, one at the upper branch, serene, majestic and divine, and the other at a lower branch, restlessly pecking fruits, sometimes sweet sometimes bitter. Every time, when the restless bird ate a bitter fruit, it looked at the upper bird and climbed a branch up. This occurred a number of times and eventually the bird reached the topmost branch. There it was not able to differentiate itself from the divine bird, and then it learnt that every time there was only one bird in the tree, the upper bird, which is described as divine, the real form of the other restless bird. This is the thought of Vedanta. The fruits in the story are Karma, the restless bird denotes a human soul, and the majestic bird denotes the Absolute.^[6]